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Ongoing concern over adult-nonadult sexual contacts and their consequences is reflected in the increase in literature and research in this area (Okami, 1990, 1992; Willis et al., 1991a; Willis et al., 1991b). A growing [Page 106] number of literature reviews on sexual abuse have appeared over the past 10 to 15 years
For various reasons, however, each of these reviews is inadequate for fully addressing the issue of boys' reactions to early sexual experiences with adults and how these reactions might differ from those of girls. First, much of the available research has focused on the effects of such contacts on girls, with boys either ignored altogether (e.g., Russell, 1986), or assumed to have the same reactions and display the same outcomes as girls (e.g., Mendel, 1995; Nielsen, 1982). Numerous studies in relevant literature reviews include female subjects only: 14 of 30 studies reviewed by Constantine (1981), 20 of 34 in Kilpatrick (1987), and 16 of 25 in Conte (1985). Some researchers whose studies have included a small number of male subjects have failed to report outcomes separately for male and female (e.g., Adams-Tucker, 1982; Friedrich et al., 1986). Finally, in the case of literature reviews, some reviews have specifically focused on females only (e.g., Browne and Finkelhor, 1986), and others that have included studies with male subjects have failed to discuss outcomes for male and female separately (e.g., Kendall-Tackett et al., 1993). A second major problem is that most reviews have an almost exclusive focus on clinical studies. For example, Kendall-Tackett et al. (1993) reviewed only studies of children and adolescents currently in sex abuse treatment programs. Similarly, the reviews of short- and long-term effects by Beitchman et al. (1991, 1992) cover clinical literature thoroughly but pay little or no attention to research based on nonclinical samples, such as the large number of reports based on college samples (e.g., Fromuth and Burkhart, 1987) or on convenience samples located in a variety of manners (e.g., Sandfort, 1984). In fact, Beitchman et al 's 1991 review of short-term effects was based entirely on clinical studies. Literature reviews that focus primarily or exclusively on males (e.g., Bolton, 1989; Urquiza and Capra, 1990; Watkins and Bentovim, 1992) also rely mainly on clinical studies. For example, 16 of 22 studies listed by Urquiza and Capra (1990) were from clinical sources. Reliance on research with female samples is problematic when conclusions from such research are extended to males. Possible sex differences in how early sexual experiences are interpreted, in how boys and girls feel about the experiences themselves, and in proportion of boys and girls who are asymptomatic, are typically not addressed. Some reviewers even specifically deny the presence of male-female differences (Black and DeBlassie, 1993; Mendel, 1995). However, direct comparisons of males and females from nonclinical populations are not discussed. There is ample evidence from other areas of research in sexuality to suggest the importance of such comparison. In a meta-analysis of research on sexual behavior and [Page 107] attitudes, M. B. Oliver and Hyde (1993) identified a number of gender differences in behavior and attitudes. Adult and adolescent males report more masturbation, a greater incidence of homosexual experiences, and earlier age at first intercourse than do females. In addition, males report more accepting attitudes toward premarital and extramarital sex than do females, and also report less sex guilt and anxiety. Effect sizes were moderate to large for these differences. Sex differences in reactions to early sexual experience have also been found, with males reporting more positive reactions than females to first intercourse (Darling et al., 1992); this difference has persisted for some time (e.g., Sorensen, 1973). Finally, sex differences in reactions to sexual encounters with adults have been previously noted. Fritz et al. (1981) reported that males were more likely to perceive their experiences as "sexual initiation" whereas females were more likely to perceive their experiences as "sexual violation." Such findings indicate the importance of systematically examining possible sex differences in re- actions to early sexual experiences. The focus on clinical samples in making general conclusions about the effects of early sexual experiences is also problematic for several reasons. Because most such contacts go unreported by the child or adolescent, these studies may not generalize beyond reported cases. Some reviewers (e.g., Urquiza and Capra, 1990) have noted that samples obtained from clinical sources may be skewed toward those suffering the most harm or distress associated with their experiences. Although some clinical reports include acknowledgement of this problem and note limitations on generalizations ( e.g., Friedrich et al., 1988), this is not always the case (e.g., Harper, 1993). In nearly all clinical studies, a broad array of symptoms has been reported in subjects identified as sexual abuse victims. Researchers studying child and adolescent males identified as sexual abuse victims, and adult males reporting earlier abuse, have found emotional problems including anxiety, anger, depression, guilt and shame, and low self-esteem (Mendel, 1995; Urquiza and Capra, 1990; Watkins and Bentovim, 1992). Behavioral problems have included aggressive behaviors, self-destructive behaviors, homicidal and suicidal ideation, and substance abuse problems ( e.g., Mendel, 1995; Urquiza and Capra, 1990). Sexual problems reported for male children and adolescents include concerns over sexual identity and masculinity, sexualized behavior in children, and sexual victimization of younger adolescents or children; in adulthood, problems include relationship difficulties, compulsive sexual behaviors, sexual dysfunction, inhibited sexual desire, and sexual aversion (e.g., Bolton, 1989; Mendel, 1995; Urquiza and Capra, 1990; Watkins and Bentovim, 1992). Such problems often, however, do not appear in nonclinical samples such as student popuations (e.g., Fromuth and Burkhart, 1987; Predieri, 1991). Research based on convenience samples [Page 108] (e.g., Okami, 1991) also reveals asymptomatic groups of subjects. This contrast indicates a need to focus separately on nonclinical research. Because of the relative neglect of males' experiences and the various problems with the clinically oriented research and literature reviews, the need fur a comprehensive review of nonclinical literature on the effects of early sexual contacts with adults on males is apparent. The purpose of the current review is to address shortcomings of previous reviews in several ways.
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